The+workings+of+feudalism,+manoralism,+and+the+growth+of+centralized+monarchies+and+city-states+in+Europe

Feudalism and the Manor Economy Medieval society was a network of mutual duties.

Feudalism Develops Even kings and nobles exchanged vows of service and loyalty. These vows were part of a new political and legal system called feudalism, which was the basis of European life during the Middle Ages.

**Mutual Obligations** Feudalism was a structure of lords and lesser lords, called vassals. Lords and their vassals exchanged pledges, which was called the feudal contract. In this contract, lords expected military service, payments, and loyalty from vassals. In return, they granted vassals protection and parcels of land, called ﬁefsmedia type="file" key="Feudalism__The_Medieval_Way_of_Life.mov" width="360" height="360" align="right", or estates. By the 1100s, many nobles lived in castles, which served as fortresses.

**A Structured Society** All aristocrats had a place in this structured society.

The World of Knights and Nobles For nobles, war was a way of life. Many trained from boyhood to become knights.  They learned to ride horseback, ﬁght, and care for weapons. They competed in mock battles called tournaments.
 * Knights and Warfare**

**Noblewomen: Restrictions and Power** Noblewomen, too, participated in the warrior society. They took over estates while their husbands were at war, and might even ﬁght to defend their lands. A few learned to read or write. All were expected to learn spinning, weaving, and the supervising of servants.

**Chivalry: Romance and Reality** Knights were expected to follow a code of ideal conduct, called chivalry. It required them to be brave, loyal, and honest, to ﬁght fairly, to treat captured knights well, and to protect the weak. Troubadours, or wandering musicians, often sang about knights and ladies. Their songs formed the basis for medieval romances, or epic stories and poems.

Manors Support Feudalism The manor, or lord’s estate, was central to the medieval economy. Manors were self-sufﬁcient, producing all that their people needed. Most peasants on manors were serfs, who were bound to the land. Although they were not slaves, serfs could not leave the manor without permission. They had to work the lord’s lands several days a week, pay fees, and get permission to marry. In return, they were allowed to farm several acres for themselves and received protection during war. Their work was harsh, and hunger and disease were common. Yet they found times to celebrate, such as Christmas, Easter, and dozens of Christian festivals each year.

Royal Power Grows  Monarchs, Nobles, and the Church During the early Middle Ages, European monarchs had limited power. However, from 1000 to 1300, increases in royal power and control gradually established the foundations of modern government.

English Kings Strengthen Their Power

**William of Normandy Conquers England** In 1066, William the Conqueror took over England.

**Expanding Royal Power** By 1086, William had completed a census and property survey called the Domesday Book. It helped establish an effective taxation system and treasury.

**Developing a Unified Legal System** In 1154, Henry II ascended the English throne. He expanded the justice system. Royal court decisions became the foundation of English common law, a system based on custom and prior rulings. Henry II also set up a jury system that was the forerunner of today’s grand jury.

Evolving Traditions of Government

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif;">**The Magna Carta** Henry’s son, King John, abused his power and was forced to sign the Magna Carta, or Great Charter. It required the king to obey the laws. It also established two important principles: due process of law, or protection from arrest without proper legal procedures, and habeas corpus, or protection from imprisonment without being charged with a crime. John also agreed not to raise taxes before consulting his Great Council of lords and clergy.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif;">**The Development of Parliament** In keeping with the Magna Carta, English rulers often called on the Great Council for advice. Under later rulers, this council evolved into Parliament, England’s legislature. Parliament eventually controlled the “power of the purse,” meaning it would not approve new taxes unless the monarch met certain demands.

<span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 140%;">Successful Monarchs in France Unlike the English, early French monarchs did not rule a united kingdom.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif;">**The Capetian Kings** In 987, Hugh Capet became king and began expanding royal power. The Capetians stabilized the kingdom over the next 300 years.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif;">**Philip Augustus Extends French Power** In 1179, Philip II took the throne. He gained control of English lands in Normandy and expanded territories in southern France, adding vast areas to his domain, and becoming Europe’s most powerful ruler.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif;">**Louis IX, King and Saint** Louis IX came to power in 1226. Although he persecuted heretics and Jews and led crusades against Muslims, he also outlawed private wars, ended serfdom, and expanded royal courts. By the time of his death in 1270, France was a centralized monarchy ruling over a unified state.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif;">**Forming the Estates General** In 1302, the Estates General was set up, but this council of clergy, nobility, and townspeople never gained the “power of the purse” over French royalty.

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 150%;">Learning and Culture Flourish Universities in medieval times still brought honor and revenue to their neighborhood, despite the problems presented in overburdened or shirking students. Student needs such as food, shelter, and entertainment were met by local merchants, although students could make trouble for university communities, too. Jacques de Vitry, a priest, protested, "They were always fighting and engaging in scuffles."

<span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 140%;">Medieval Universities Emerge Dynamic changes was prevalent in Europe by the 1100s, when food became more readily available and both trade and towns prospered.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif;">**The Need for Educated People Grows** The demand for learning grew along with the strengthening of the High Middle Ages' financial and governmental climates. Secular and religious leaders both wanted more intelligent men to help strengthen their reigns. If sons from wealthy families were successful in their education, they had a good chance of securing important positions in those two areas.

To meet the clergy's needs, many schools had been founded by the 1100s, some going on to become the first colleges. Their arrangement was that of a guild, with law in place to preserve members' rights and institute instructional standards.

Salerno, an Italian city, had an esteemed medical school around the early 900s; soon after its establishment in 1158, Bologna's university became known for its legal course; and in the later 1100s, colleges came to Paris and Oxford. Soon after, a sort of "university rush" started, with students transferring frequently to meet their professional requirements, and lodging with whoever would take them.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif;">**Muslim Scholarship Advances Knowledge** Aristotle and other Greeks' works were adapted by Muslim scholars into the Arabic language. These same works were translated into Latin, the language used by European scholars, in Muslim Spain. These changes brought about a learning revolution.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif;">**Christian Scholars Struggle With New Ideas** Contrary to the Greek philosophers use of reason, Christians regarded the Church as sovereign. Therefore, Christian scholars struggled with reason. To rectify this matter, they use reason to prove their beliefs, a technique referred to as scholasticism. The most prominent scholastic, Thomas Aquinas, proved the coexistence of logic and religion. He wrote Summa theologica to prove that faith and reason exist in harmony.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif;">**New Approaches to Science and Mathematics** Scientific learning also reached Europe, including translations of Hippocrates on medicine and Euclid on geometry. Europeans adopted the more streamlined Hindu-Arabic numerals over cumbersome Roman numerals, allowing later scientists and mathematicians to make great strides.

<span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 140%;">Medieval Literature Latin remained the language of Europe’s scholars and churchmen. However, new literature emerged in the vernacular, or everyday languages of ordinary people.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif;">**Heroic Epics Captivate** This change brought a flowering of literary works, including the Song of Roland, a French epic poem of chivalry; Divine Comedy, the Italian classic poem of heaven, hell, and purgatory by Dante Alighieri; and a portrait of English medieval life, the Canterbury Tales, by Geoffrey Chaucer.

<span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 140%;">Architecture and Art Architecture and the arts also flourished.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif;">**From Romanesque to Gothic** Fortress-like Romanesque churches gave way to the Gothic style. Its key feature was flying buttresses—exterior stone supports that permitted thinner, higher walls and massive windows, bringing light and height to cathedrals. Other arts during the period include stained glass, religious paintings, and woven wall hangings. A famous example is the Bayeux Tapestry, an embroidered illustration of the Norman Conquest of England. The Gothic style was also applied to the decoration of books, known as illumination.